Usually the 1000 years beginning with the sixth century are termed the Dark Ages. In this chapter, however, I have entitled the period from the eleventh through the fourteenth centuries by this designation. Intellectuality receded to the darkness of the cloister as never before. Turmoil and upheavals were on every hand, devastating wars wrecked civilization, the black death in the middle of the fourteenth century took its horrible toll; and ignorance, superstition, and a dead, cold, formalism together with immorality blighted the whole period. The twelfth and thirteenth centuries were characterized by the plague of the Crusades. Insecurity and uncertainty robbed men of their hopes. All of these conditions naturally reacted upon Jewry, especially in the center of Europe. Under such circumstances it was natural that the flame of Messianic expectation should be fanned into most ardent hopes.

A new method of Messianic speculation arose in this period or rather came into popular vogue. It is known as Gematria, or the science of numbers. To us at the present time it seems a very strange coincidence that the year 1096 C.E., the year of the first Crusade, was fixed upon as the year of Redemption. This date was worked out especially by Solomon ben Simeon (12 C.) :

"Solomon ben Simeon (12 C.), the chronicler of the First Crusade, makes mention of this high hope which was entertained by his contemporaries: 'And it came to pass in the year 4856 A.M., the 1,028th year of our exile in the eleventh year of the 256th cycle (=1096 C.E.), when we had hoped for salvation and comfort, according to the prophecy of Jeremiah, "Sing (רָנּ˝וּ equals 256 in Gematria) with gladness for Jacob and shout at the head of the nation." But it was turned into sorrow and groaning, weeping and lamentation.' This seems to be the first clear use of Gematria in Messianic prognostication applied to the Roman exile. Heretofore only actual dates and figures, the length of the earlier exiles or verses suggesting time-periods, were employed. From now on any word or words, however faintly reminiscent of Redemption they might be, are summoned at the behest of Gematria to yield to up its secret. The science becomes exceedingly popular running parallel, no doubt, to its growing popularity in other fields, notably Kabbala and exegesis."

As seen in the last quotation from Dr. Silver, 1096 C.E. was set as the Messianic year. It seems that the hopes of all Jewry were centered in that year. When, however, it passed, there were bitter disillusionment and disappointment. For instance, the Midrashic commentary of Tobiah ben Eliezer, of Castoria, Bulgaria, written in 1097, voices the discouragement which had gripped the nation. Having examined carefully the Sacred Book, the writer sighed: "Our power is gone and there is none remaining, shut up or left at large; and how all the ends have passed and Redemption is now dependent upon repentance alone, as it is written, 'If thou wilt return, 0 Israel saith the Lord, yea return unto me,' and again, If thou return then I will bring thee back, thou shalt stand before Me.'" The enemies of the Jews taunted them because of the nonfulfilment of their expectation.

"Ye have calculated the times of Redemption and they are now past, and the hope of salvation is over and gone." According to Dr. Silver, the calamities of the Redemption year, 1096, brought only wreckage. The faithful ones, however, began to see hope in their present situation and considered that the sufferings were "the birth-pangs of the Messiah." Jewry rallied in a heroic manner from the sloughs of despondency, as is manifested by the leadership of their great men.

Rashi (1040-1105) is one of the leading lights of Jewry. His commentaries are still the standard. He indulged in Messianic speculation, using Gematria in determining the year of Redemption:

"Rashi (1040-1105) finds that Dan. 8:14 and 12:11-12 clearly point to the year 1352 C.E. as the Messianic year. Verse 14 of chapter 8 reads: 'And he said unto me, Unto evening and morning 2300 years, then shall the sanctuary be victorious' ערב .עד ערב בקר אלפים ושׁלשׁ מאות and בקר must be taken in their numerical (Gematria) value =574. Add 2,300 and you have the figure 2,874. The terminus a quo is the beginning of the Egyptian captivity. The Jews were 210 years in Egypt; 480 years elapsed from the time of their deliverance to the building of the first Temple; the Temple stood 410 years; the Babylonian captivity lasted 70 years, and the second Temple stood 420 years. This gives you a total of 1590 years from Egypt to the second destruction. Dan. 12:11-12 says that 1290 years must elapse from the time that the continual burnt offering shall be taken away until the time of the Redemption. The offering ceased, according to Rashi, six years before the destruction, i.e., in the 1584th year since the Egyptian captivity; add 1584 and 1290 and you get the figure 2874, the figure of Dan. 8:14. The Temple was destroyed in 68 C.E. The Messiah, according to Rashi, is to appear 1290 years after the cessation of the burnt offering, which took place six years before the destruction (i.e., 62 C.E.). Rashi therefore expected the Messiah to come in the year 1352 C.E.

"In his commentary on San. 97b, he offers another figure in the name of Samuel ben David Halevi, basing his computation on Ps. 80:6: 'And thou hast given them tears to drink in a threefold measure.' He states that the present exile would last three times as long as the Egyptian (400 years) and the Babylonian (70 years) put together, i.e., 1410 years. In other words, the Messiah would come in the year 1478 C.E."

Another leading light of the twelfth century is Abraham bar Hiyya, concerning whom, Dr. Silver has the following to say:

"Abraham bar Hiyya (d. 1136), contemporary of Halevi, Spanish-Jewish astronomer, mathematician and philosopher, plays an important role in Messianic speculation. His book, Megillat ha-Megalleh, which has but recently been edited and published, shows the author to have been among the first to have engaged in Messianic speculation on a vast and comprehensive scale. He is more thorough than Saadia, the only other author preceding him whose elaborate Messianic calculations have come down to us. Bar Hiyya, who seemingly digested all the literature on the subject which had appeared up to his day, influenced to a great degree many of the subsequent Messianic speculations, especially those of Nahmanides and Abarbanel.

"Abraham bar Hiyya launches upon his subject with a bold defense of Messianic calculation. It is legitimate. It is sanctioned by the Torah. It finds precedent in the Talmud and in the later Rabbis. It is helpful in that it strengthens faith and enhances the morale of the people. He also vigorously defends his methods of calculation. His calculations derive from four sources: (1) the Creation account in Genesis, (2) the rest of the Torah, (3) the Book of Daniel; and (4) Astrology. He lays greatest value upon the first two, less on the third, and very little on the last, which he utilizes only as a means of convincing those who are given to this science and would not otherwise be convinced.

"The world was created solely for the sake of Israel. Every cycle in the Creation story, therefore, is symbolic and prophetic of the history of Israel. The Creation week signifies that the world will last 6000 years the seventh being the Millennial Sabbath. Each Creation day points to a 1000 years of the worlds cycle; for a day in the sight of God is 1000 years, or to be exact 8571/7 years, for it is written, 'For a thousand years are in Thy sight as yesterday when it is past plus a watch in the night.' A watch in the night is equal to a third of a night or four hours. A day of God is therefore equal to 6/7 of 1000 years, or 857 1/7, and the seven days of Creation equal 6000 years.

"Each day is again divided into seven parts and each part (C. 122 years) is equal to one generation.

"Through an elaborate maze of figures Bar Hiyya arrives at his conclusions viz., the flood took place at the close of the second day, i.e. 1714 A.M. The Torah was given toward the close of the third day, or more specifically at the beginning of the seventh generation of the third day, i.e., 2448 A.M.

"On the basis of this figure, says Bar Hiyya, one may calculate that the succeeding three days, at the close of which the Messiah will come, will also last 2448 years, and will terminate in 4896 A.M. The Messiah may therefore be expected in the year 1136 C.E. This is the earliest possible date, perhaps the date when the first signs of his coming will appear. Or one may reckon not from the time of the giving of the Torah but from the conquest of Canaan (2495 A.M.). This would place the year of the Messiah in 4990 A.M. or 1230 C.E. This, according to Bar Hiyya, is the more probable date.

"Again, says Bar Hiyya, one may reason in this wise: In Deut. 28:63 it is stated 'and it shall come to pass, that as the Lord rejoiced over you to do you good ... so the Lord will rejoice over you to cause you to perish …' this implies that the period of suffering will be as long as the period of rejoicing. The period of rejoicing began with the giving of the Torah (2448 A.M.) and closed with the destruction (3828 A.M.). In other words, it lasted 1380 years. The period of suffering will therefore also last 1380 years i.e., to the year 5208 A.M. or 1448 C.E. This is the outmost figure. The Messiahs coming cannot be delayed beyond it.

"There is still a possible fourth calculation. The Torah was given in 2448 A.M. at the close of the third day. This leaves 3552 years for the remaining four days of the Creation week, or approximately 890 years per day. The first Temple was destroyed at the close of the fourth day, in 3338 A.M., 890 years after the giving of the Torah. The fifth and sixth days will last 890 x 2=1780 years. At the close of the sixth day the Messiah will come. Add 1780 to 3338 and you get 5118 A.M. or 1358 C.E. as the Messianic year. Bar Hiyya writes: 'And we believe that in that year Redemption will come without delay.' This is approximately also Rashi's date. We shall see that the year 1358 became a favorite one among succeeding speculators. On the basis of the Baraita in Ab. Zar. 9a and San. 97a 'six thousand years will the world endure ...' and Dan. 12:12, Bar Hiyya deduces still a fifth date, 1403 C.E., which also proved a popular Messianic date.

"Bar Hiyya interprets the Messianic verses in Daniel to yield him the same dates. The figure 2300 is to be dated either from the time of the building of the first Temple (2928 A.M.), which would yield the Messianic year 5228 A.M.-1468 C.E., or from the preparations for the building which were begun by David twenty years earlier, yielding the Messianic year 1448 C.E. The figure 1290 is to be dated from the destruction of the second Temple (68 C.E.). The Messianic year will therefore be 1358 C.E. The figure 1335, which is 45 years later, points to the wars of Gog and Magog, which will last 45 years from the time of the appearance of the Messiah.

"Bar Hiyya apologizes for resorting in his calculations to astrology. The foregoing arguments based on Scriptures and Rabbinic sources are really sufficient, and he would not have stooped to a science which is the creation of the Gentiles but for his desire to convince those who can only be convinced through this method. He was encouraged by the fact that even the Rabbis did not altogether disdain astrology."

That the reader might see the principal methods employed by the great men of Israel, we must also notice Maimonides (1135-1204). Notwithstanding his sanity, he yielded to the idea of calculating the end. He was of the opinion that when Christianity and Mohammedanism had become universal, Messiah would come, but was not certain as to the exact time. Hear him:

" 'The exact time is not known for a certainty, but there exists among us a great and wonderful tradition which I received from my father, and he in turn from his father, and his grandfather, who likewise received it, and so through a continuous chain to the beginning of the exile from Jerusalem ... that in Balaam's statement, Num. 23:23, "Now, is it said of Jacob and of Israel, What hath God wrought?" is found the key to the mystery. From the time of this prophecy one should count the number of years which preceded it from creation. Prophecy will at that time return to Israel, and then the prophets will say, "Behold what God hath wrought." This prophecy of Balaam was delivered forty years after the Exodus, i.e., in the year 2488 A.M. The return of prophecy, which is the sign heralding the coming of the Messiah, will therefore transpire in the year 4976 A.M., i.e., 1216 C.E.'"

Moses Nahmanides (1194-1268) popularized cabalistic exegesis. He depended upon Gematria and Notarikon--the numerical and mystical interpretation of numbers--to unravel the future. According to Dr. Silver, his objective was to prove the following points:

"He sets about to prove four things: (1) that the books of Moses and the later prophetic writings contain definite references to the final Redemption, as well as calculable and ascertainable dates; (2) that Gematria is a legitimate and traditionally sanctioned method of discovering such dates; (3) that the Messianic passages of Daniel refer to the final Redemption; (4) that the Rabbinic injunction against calculating the end is no longer binding because we are so near the end now, and the injunction was made at a time when the end was far off, in order to save the people from heart-breaking disappointments.

"Nahmanides proceeds to harmonize the various dates found in the Book of Daniel, and to deduce from them the exact Messianic year. According to him, Dan. 12:11, 'And from the time that the continual burnt offering shall be taken away and the detestable thing that causeth appalment set up, there shall be 1290 days,' means that 1290 years after the destruction of the Temple the first Messiah, the Messiah ben Joseph, will appear (i.e., in the year 1358 C.E.). In his public disputation with Pablo Christiani (1263 C.E.), Nahmanides stated explicitly: 'It is now 1195 years since the destruction, or 95 years less than the Messianic figure of Daniel. We believe that the Messiah will come that year. Nahmanides maintains that the burnt offering was taken away on the day of the destruction, differing in this regard from Saadia. Forty-five years later (i.e., 1403 C.E.) the Messiah ben David will come; hence the second figure of 1335 days found in Dan. 12:13."

His interpretation of Daniel's expression "time, times and half a time" was that it alludes to a period of 1540 years. "Time" referred to the Egyptian bondage of 440 years; "times" in the dual number signified a period of 880 years, and "half a time" one-half of 440, which is 220. The total of this number is 1540 years; hence, Rome's domination was to continue during this period. Having begun in 138 B.C.E., the period ends with the year 1402. He endeavored to interpret the 2300 evenings and mornings of Dan. 8:14 which yielded 2275 years. This period is to begin with the reign of David and to terminate with the last exile of Israel. It is needless to say that his prognostication failed.

I will call attention to one other of the cabalistic exponents of Messianic prophecy. The work to which I refer is the Zohar (about 1290). There is some dispute as to who was the author. It is quite likely that in it are reflected the opinions of the age.

"(1) The Zohar, Par. Wayyera, basing itself on the mystic value of the Tetragrammaton, sets the date as 1300 C.E. When Israel was exiled the letters of Gods name (יהוה) were separated; the He was separated from the Waw. As long as this separation lasts Israel will lie prostrate in the dust. The He means 5000 years, the Waw 6000 years. When the fifth millennium will end and the sixth begin (i.e., when the two will be joined), and that will take place m the 60th year of the sixth millennium (5060 A.M. = 1300 C.E.) the hour of Redemption will begin. The number 60 is arrived at by multiplying the letter Waw (6) by Yod (10), which is their highest common multiple. Every 60 years thereafter the letter He will ascend by degrees and gain in potency until the year 5600 A.M.=1840 C.E. is reached, when the gates of wisdom will be opened from above and from below and the world will be ready for the seventh millennium.

"(2) Another calculation based the mystic value of the letter Waw sets the date of Messiah's coming as 1306 C.E. The Waw in the name יעקוב, in the sentence, 'And I will remember my covenant with Jacob' is the key to this computation. The act of remembrance will occur in the year 60 of the sixth millennium (1300 C.E.). God will redeem his promise to the children of Jacob. 'In the 66th year of the sixth millennium (1306 C.E.) the King Messiah will appear in Galilee.' These two dates, 1300 and 1306 are probably the conjectures of the original compiler of the Zohar himself--Moses de Leon--who died in 1305."

The writers of this school whom I have quoted show clearly the method of calculating the date of Messiah's appearance. There are many ramifications of both Gematria and Notarikon, but the evidence which has been produced thus far is sufficient to bring out the principal characteristics of this method of Scriptural exegesis.

There was strong opposition to the Messianic speculation of this period. Among these objectors may be mentioned Moses ibn Gikatilla, Moses ibn Ezra, Judah Halevi, Abraham ibn Ezra, Azariah dei Rossi (about 1578), and a host of others.

The last-named expositor was outspoken against the current system of speculation. At length he answered his opponents in a thorough and scholarly manner. His line of argument was that the current creation calendar was inaccurate and that there had elapsed a longer period of time since creation than was indicated by the reckoning. Having established his premise, he drew the conclusion that the Messianic year of 5335 A.M. (1575 C.E.) had long since passed. Israel, therefore, had placed her hopes upon an insecure basis.

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